PROTECTING CROPS FROM DAMAGE AND DISEASE.....continued

Plants and vegetable products (stocks, store) have to be protected from pests and diseases to avoid economically important parts of plants to be quantitatively and qualitatively damaged. Preventive steps (plant hygiene) and direct protective measures (physical, biochemical, biological, and chemical methods) are used by farmers, gardeners, and hobby gardeners in the defence of harmful plants and animals.

Economically Important Diseases of Plants - Powdery mildew of grain (Erysiphe graminis), ascomycete - Breaking stem of grain (Pseudocercosporella herpotrichoides), fungus imperfectus - Brown spelt of grain (Septoria nodorum), fungus imperfectus - Bunt of wheat (Tilletia tritici), basidiomycete - Ergot on rye (Claviceps purpurea), ascomycete - Reduction disease of potato (various viruses) - Rottenness of potato (Phytophthora infestans) phycomycete - False mildew on vegetables (Peronospora sp.), phycomycetes - Mildew of cucumber (Erysiphe cichoriacearum), ascomycete - Bean rust (Uromyces appendiculatus), basidiomycete - Scab on fruit (Venturia inaequalis resp. pirina), ascomycete - Grey mould on fruit (Botrytis cinerea), fungus imperfectus - Fungus, a heterotrophic plant, graph - Polynucleate sprout of Botrytis spore allows gen combination, fungus imperfectus.

Photomicrographs of Fungi Causing Plant Diseases - Potato wart (Synchytrium endobioticum), infects tubers, t.s. - False mildew of grapes (Plasmopara viticola), leaf with conidiophores, t.s. - Clubroot of cabbage (Plasmodiophora brassicae) infected cells with young plasmodia, t.s. - Clubroot of cabbage (Plasmodiophora brassicae), host tissue with spores, t.s. - False mildew on cruciferae (Peronospora parasitica), t.s. - White smut (Albugo candida), mycelium and conidia, t.s. - Head mould (Mucor mucedo), zygomycete, sporangia with spores - Mould (Rhizopus), zygomycete, formation of zygospore - Disease of plums (Taphrina pruni), with asci and ascospores, t.s. - Scab on pears (Venturia pirina), conidia, t.s. - Ergot (Claviceps purpurea), perithecial head with asci, l.s. - Ergot (Claviceps purpurea), sclerotium formed of hyphae, l.s. - Pilobolus, sporophorous hypha with sporangium - Mildew on apple (Podosphaera leucotricha), conidiophores on leaf - Penicillium, mycelium and brush-shaped conidiophores - Aspergillus, mycelium and conidiophores - Sclerotina fructigena, conidia on surface of fruit - Gray mould on onions (Botrytis allii), t.s of leaf. - Tar spot on maple leave (Rhytisma acerinum), t.s. of sclerotium - Yeast (Saccharomyces), spore formation - Corn smut (Ustilago maydis), spores in tissue - Black stem rust of wheat (Puccinia graminis), urediniospores (yellow rust), on leaf of wheat t.s. - Black stem rust of wheat (Puccinia graminis), teliospores (black rust) on leaf of wheat, t.s. - Black stem rust of wheat (Puccinia graminis), aecidia on leaf of barberry.

Vegetable Pests: Weeds - Table of weeds - Some common weeds - Four grasses competing with cultivated plants - Chalky soil loving plant: Charlock (Sinapis arvensis) - Acid soil loving plant: Wild radish (Raphanus raphanistrum) - Nitrogen loving plant: Common chickweed (Stellaria media) - Indicator of wetness: Horsetail (Equisetum arvense) - Weed in meadowland: Common dandelion (Taraxacum officinale) - Weed germinating in spring (Avena fatua) - Weeds germinating in summer: many seeded goosefoot or pigweed (Chenopodium polyspermum) - Weed germinating in autumn: chamomile (Matricaria chamomilla) - Weeds damage by deprivation of light, water, nutrients, space; graph - Erosion.

Economically Important Animal Pests - Piercing-sucking mouth parts of a bug, photomicrograph - Red spiders, Tetranychidae, on leaf of fruit tree - Codlin moth (Laspeyresia = Carpocapsa pomonella) - Apple weevil (Anthonomus pomorum), a snout beetle, Curculionidae - White fly (Trialeurodes), Aleyrodidae - Scale insect (Coccidae) on salad - Grain aphid (Sitobium granarium), Aphidae - Bitingchewing mouth parts of cockroach (Periplaneta) - Radish-root maggot (Phorbia floralis), Anthonomyiidae - Beet leaf-miner (Pegomyia betae), Anthonomyiidae - Rape beetle (Meligethes aeneus), Nitidulidae - Flea-beetle (Phyllotreta vittata), Chrysomelidae - European corn-borer (Ostrinia = Pyrausta nubilalis), Pyraustinae - Frit-fly (Oscinella frit), Chloropidae - Caterpillar of Pieris brassicae, Pieridae - Colourado potato beetle (Leptinotarsa decemlineata) Chrysomelidae - Radula of the slug Deroceras, Limacidae - Common garden slug (Deroceras agreste), Limacidae - Field mouse (Microtus arvalis), Muridae - Vole (Arvicola terrestris), Muridae - Sparrow, pheasant - Muskrat (Ondrata cibethica), Muridae.

Measures and Methods of Plant Protection - Cultivating the soil (ploughing, harrowing), protective measure - Preparation of the seed bed, protective measure - Selection of type, protective measure - Disinfection, treatment of seed, protective measures - Rotation of crops: sugar beets, winter wheat, summer grain, corn, field forage - Physical method of weeding - Mechanical method of weeding - Chemical methods of weeding - Steaming of the soil - Chemical measures: Distribution of the total quantity of active substance - Legal requirements: Law of plant protection; procedure of authorization - Legal requirements: Permissible consumer level - Importance of plant protection for business management and work - What happens with pesticides in nature? - Legal requirements: Protection of environment and bees - Research on metabolites in laboratory, gas chromatography - Biological measures: Ichneumon fly in greenhouse - Biological measures: Predative mites in greenhouse - Biological measures: Ladybird beetles against aphids - Biotechnical methods: Frightening by bang.

Integrated Protection of Plants - What is integrated protection of plants? - Integrated protection of plants in apple plantations - Economic damage limit - Light trap - Knocking method - Pheromone trap - Electronic scab warning instrument - Conventional method: Mills’ table - Protection of useful animals.