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The Periglacial Environment (Ed.3) by Hugh M. French Softcover - 478 pages Shipped in CLICK HERE Cat.# JW-GEO1 $181.75 BUY Published:  2007   ISBN:  9780470865880

The Periglacial Environment, Third Edition presents a balanced and comprehensive account of the characteristics and significance of periglacial processes, landforms and deposits. The book is organised into four parts. Part one provides a general introduction to the subject. Part two provides an overview to the characteristics of present-day periglacial environments, and part three focuses on relict periglacial environments. The whole is rounded of with part four covering applied periglacial geomorphology. This Third Edition includes new and expanded sections on: pleistocene environments, global change, geotechnical and engineering aspects.

This excellent textbook is an invaluable resource for second and third year undergraduate students of Physical Geography, Geology, Environmental Science and Earth Science. The Periglacial Environment, Third Edition is also an informative reading for professionals, researchers and lecturers working and teaching in the field.

Table of Contents:

List of Figures
List of Table
Preface to First Edition
Preface to Second Edition
Preface to Third Edition
Acknowledgements


PART ONE: THE PERIGLACIAL DOMAIN

1. INTRODUCTION
1.1. The periglacial concept
1.2. Disciplinary considerations
1. 2. 1. The growth of geocryology
1. 2. 2. The changing nature of Quaternary science
1. 2. 3. Modern periglacial geomorphology
1.3. The growth of periglacial knowledge
1.4. The periglacial domain
1.5. The scope of periglacial geomorphology
1. 5. 1. Permafrost-related processes and landforms
1. 5. 2. Azonal processes and landforms
1. 5. 3. Palaeo-environmental reconstruction
1. 5. 4. Applied periglacial geomorphology

Advanced reading
Discussion topics

2. PERIGLACIAL LANDSCAPES?

2. 1 Introduction
2. 2 Proglacial, paraglacial or periglacial?
2. 3 Unglaciated periglacial terrain
2. 3. 1. Beaufort Plain, Northwest Banks Island, Arctic Canada
2. 3. 2 Barn Mountains, northern interior Yukon Territory, Canada
2. 4 Relict periglacial landscapes
2. 4. 1. Chalk uplands, Southern England and Northern France
2. 4. 2. Pine Barrens, South Jersey, Eastern USA
2. 5. Conclusions

Advanced reading
Discussion topics

3. PERIGLACIAL CLIMATES

3.1 Boundary conditions
3.2 Regional climates
3. 2. 1. High Arctic climates
3. 2. 2. Continental climates
3. 2. 3. Qinghai-Xizang (Tibet) Plateau
3. 2. 4. Alpine climates
3. 2. 5. Climates of low annual temperature range
3. 2. 6. Antarctica: a special case
3.3 Ground climates
3. 3. 1. The ‘n’ factor
3. 3. 2. The thermal offset
3.4. Periglacial climates and the cryosphere

Advanced reading
Discussion topics

PART TWO: PRESENT-DAY PERIGLACIAL ENVIRONMENTS

4. COLD-CLIMATE WEATHERING

4. 1 Introduction
4. 2 Ground freezing
4. 2. 1. The freezing process
4. 2. 2. Ice segregation
4. 2. 3. The frozen fringe
4. 2. 4. Frost heave
4. 3 Freezing and thawing
4. 4. The ground temperature regime
4. 4. 1 The seasonal regime
4. 4. 2 Short-term fluctuations
4. 5. Rock (frost?) shattering
4. 5. 1. Frost action and ice segregation
4. 5. 2. Frost weathering models
4. 5. 3. Insolation weathering and thermal shock
4. 5. 4. Discussion and perspective
4. 6. Chemical weathering
4. 6. 1. General
4. 6. 2. Solution and karstification
4. 6. 3. Salt weathering
4. 7. Cryogenic weathering
4. 8. Cryobiological weathering
4. 9. Cryopedology
4. 9. 1. Cryosols
4. 9. 2. Soil micromorphology

Advanced reading
Discussion topics

5. PERMAFROST

5. 1. Introduction
5. 1. 1. Definition
5. 1. 2. Moisture and ice within permafrost
5. 2. Thermal and physical properties
5. 2. 2. The geothermal regime
5. 2. 3. Physical properties
5. 3. How does permafrost aggrade?
5. 3. 1. General principles
5. 3. 2. The Illisarvik drained-lake experiment
5. 4. Distribution of permafrost
5. 3. 1 Latitudinal permafrost
5. 3. 2 Alpine (mountain) permafrost
5. 3. 3. Montane permafrost of central Asia
5. 5. Relict permafrost
5. 5. 1. Sub-sea permafrost
5. 5. 2. Relict (terrestrial) permafrost
5. 6. Permafrost hydrology
5. 6 1. Aquifers
5. 6. 2. Hydrochemistry
5. 6. 3. Groundwater icings
5. 7 Permafrost and terrain conditions
5. 7. 1 Relief and aspect
5. 7. 2 Rock type
5. 7. 3. Vegetation
5. 7. 4. Snow cover
5. 7. 5. Fire
5. 7. 6. Lakes and water bodies
5. 8. The active layer
5. 8. 1. The transient layer
5. 8. 2. The Stefan equation
5. 8. 3. Active-layer thermal regime

Advanced reading
Discussion topics

6. SURFACE FEATURES OF PERMAFROST

6. 1. Introduction
6. 2. Thermal-contraction-crack polygons
6. 2. 1. Thermal coefficients of expansion and contraction
6. 2. 2. Ice, sand, and soil wedges
6. 2. 3. Development of the polygonal net
6. 2. 4. Polygon morphology
6. 2. 5. Controls over cracking
6. 2. 6. Climatic significance
6. 3. Organic terrain
6. 3. 1. Palsas
6. 3. 2. Peat plateaux
6. 4. Rock glaciers and permafrost creep
6. 4. 1. Creeping permafrost
6. 4. 2. Types
6. 4. 3. Distribution
6. 4. 4. Origin
6. 5. Frost mounds
6. 5. 1. Perennial frost mounds
6. 5. 2. Hydraulic (open) system pingos
6. 5. 3. Hydrostatic (closed) system pingos
6. 5. 4. Other perennial frost mounds
6. 5. 5. Seasonal frost mounds
6. 5. 6. Hydrolaccoliths and other frost-induced mounds
6. 6. Active-layer phenomena
6. 6. 1. Bedrock heave
6. 6. 2. Needle ice
6. 6. 3. Cryoturbation and frost heave
6. 6. 4. Frost sorting
6. 6. 5. Patterned ground

Advanced reading
Discussion topics

7. GROUND ICE

7. 1. Definition and description
7. 2. Classification
7. 2. 1. Pore ice
7. 2. 2. Segregated ice
7. 2. 3. Intrusive ice
7. 2. 4. Vein ice
7. 2. 5. Other types of ice
7. 3. Ice distribution
7. 3. 1. Amounts
7. 3. 2. Distribution with depth
7. 3. 3. Ice in bedrock
7. 3. 4. Ice in unconsolidated sediments
7. 4. Cryolithology and cryostratigraphy
7. 4. 1. Cryostructures, cryotextures and cryofacies
7. 4. 2. Epigenetic and syngenetic cryostructures
7. 4. 3. Thaw unconformities
7. 4. 4. Ice crystallography
7. 4. 5. Ice geochemistry
7. 4. 6. Cryostratigraphy and past environments
7.5 Ice wedges
7. 5. 1. Epigenetic wedges
7. 5. 2. Syngenetic wedges
7. 5. 3. Anti-syngenetic wedges
7. 6. Massive ice and massive-icy bodies
7. 6. 1. Nature and extent
7. 6. 2. Differentiating criteria
7. 6. 3. Intra-sedimental ice
7. 6. 4. Buried glacier ice
7. 6. 5. Other mechanisms Advanced reading Discussion topics

8. THERMOKARST

8. 1 Introduction
8. 2. Causes of thermokarst
8. 2. 1. General
8. 2. 2. Specific
8. 3. Thaw-related processes
8. 3. 1. Thermokarst subsidence
8. 3. 2. Thermal erosion
8. 3. 3. Other processes
8. 4. Thermokarst sediments and structures
8. 4. 1. Involuted sediments
8. 4. 2. Retrogressive-thaw-slumps and debris-flow deposits
8. 4. 3. Ice-wedge pseudomorphs and composite-wedge casts
8. 4. 4. Ice, silt, sand and gravel pseudomorphs
8.5. Ice-wedge thermokarst relief
8. 5. 1. Low-centred polygon terrain
8. 5. 2. High-centred polygon terrain
8. 5. 3 Badland thermokarst terrain
8. 6. Thaw lakes and depressions
8. 6. 1 Morphology and sediments
8. 6. 2 Growth and drainage
8. 6. 3. Oriented-thaw lakes
8. 7. Thermokarst-affected terrain
8. 7. 1. Lowlands of Central and Northern Siberia
8. 7. 2 Western North American Arctic 8. 8. Man-induced thermokarst
8. 8. 1. Causes
8. 8. 2. Case studies

Advanced reading
Discussion topics

9. HILLSLOPE PROCESSES AND SLOPE EVOLUTION

9. 1. Introduction
9. 2. Slope morphology
9. 2. 1. The free-face model
9. 2. 2. Rectilinear debris-mantled slopes
9. 2. 3. Convexo-concavo debris-mantled slopes
9. 2. 4. Pediment-like slopes
9. 2. 5. Stepped profiles
9. 3. Mass wasting
9. 4. Slow mass-wasting
9. 4. 1. Solifluction
9. 4. 2 Frost creep
9. 4. 3. Gelifluction
9. 4. 4. Solifluction deposits and phenomena
9. 5. Rapid mass-wasting
9. 5. 1. Active-layer-detachment slides
9. 5. 2. Debris flows, slushflows and avalanches
9. 5. 3. Rockfall
9.6 Slopewash
9. 6. 1. Snowbank hydrology
9. 6. 2. Surface and subsurface wash
9.7. Frozen and thawing slopes
9. 7. 1. Permafrost creep
9. 7. 2. Thermokarst and thaw consolidation
9. 7. 3. Stability of thawing slopes
9. 8. Cold-climate slope evolution
9. 8. 1. Cryoplanation
9. 8. 2. Slope replacement and Richter-denudation slopes
9. 8. 3. Rapidity of profile change

Advanced reading
Discussion topics

10. AZONAL PROCESSES AND LANDFORMS

10. 1. Introduction
10. 2. Fluvial processes and landforms
10. 2. 1. Major rivers
10. 2. 2. Freeze-up and break-up
10. 2. 3. Basin hydrology
10. 2. 4. Sediment flow, surface transport and denudation
10. 2. 5. Fluvio-thermal erosion
10. 2. 6. Channel morphology
10. 2. 7. Stream and valley asymmetry
10.3. Aeolian processes and sediments
10. 3. 1. Wind abrasion
10. 3. 2. Wind deflation
10. 3. 3. Niveo-aeolian processes
10. 3. 4. Loess-like silt
10. 3. 5. Sand dunes and sand sheets
10.4 Coastal processes and landforms
10. 4. 1. The coastal-sea ice interface
10. 4. 2. Sea ice, wave generation and sediment transport
10. 4. 3. Ice on the beach
10. 4. 4. Influence of permafrost and ground ice
10. 4. 5. Cold-climate deltas Advanced reading Discussion topic

PART THREE: LATE-PLEISTOCENE PERIGLACIAL ENVIRONMENTS

11. QUATERNARY PERIGLACIAL CONDITIONS

11. 1. Introduction
11. 2. The time scale and climatic fluctuations
11. 3. Global (eustatic) considerations
11. 3. 1. Sea level changes
11. 3. 2. Uplift of Qinghai-Xizang (Tibet) Plateau
11. 4. Pleistocene periglacial environments of high latitude
11. 4. 1. Extent of past glaciations
11. 4. 2. Relict permafrost
11. 4. 3. Syngenetic permafrost growth
11. 4. 4. Loess deposition
11. 4. 5. Mass-wasting and ‘muck’ deposits
11. 5. Pleistocene periglacial environments of mid-latitude
11. 5. 1. General considerations
11. 5. 2. Mammals and ecosystems
11. 5. 3. Perennial or seasonal frost?
11. 5. 4. Problems of reconstruction
11. 5. 5. Extent in northern hemisphere
11. 5. 6. Extent in southern hemisphere
11. 6. Conclusions

Advanced reading
Discussion topics

12. EVIDENCE FOR PAST PERMAFROST

12. 1. Introduction
12. 2. Past permafrost aggradation
12. 2. 1. The palaeo-permafrost table
12. 2. 2. Frost-fissure pseudomorphs and casts
12. 2. 3. Frost-mound remnants
12. 3. Past permafrost degradation
12. 3. 1. Thermokarst depressions
12. 3. 2. Palaeo-thaw layers
12. 3. 3. Thermokarst involutions and ‘sediment-filled pots’
12. 3. 4. Large-scale soft-sediment deformations
12. 3. 5. Non-diastrophic structures in bedrock
12. 3. 6. Discussion
12. 4. Summary

Advanced reading
Discussion topics

13. PERIGLACIAL LANDSCAPE MODIFICATION

13. 1. Introduction
13. 2. Intense frost action
13. 2. 1. Soil wedges
13. 2. 2. Frost-disturbed bedrock
13. 2. 3. Stratified slope deposits
13. 2. 4. Head and solifluction deposits
13. 2. 5. Frost-disturbed soils and involuted structures
13. 3. Intense wind action
13. 3. 1. Wind-abraded rocks
13. 3. 2. Loess
13. 3. 3. Cover sands and dunes
13. 4. Fluvial activity
13. 4. 1. Major rivers
13. 4. 2. Asymmetrical valleys
13. 4. 3. Stream incision
13. 5. Slope modification
13. 5. 1. Mass-wasting on slopes
13. 5. 2. Valley-bottom aggradation
13. 5. 3. Smoothing of slopes
Advanced reading
Discussion topics

PART FOUR: APPLIED PERIGLACIAL GEOMORPHOLOGY

14. Geotechnical and Engineering Aspects
14. 1. Introduction
14. 2. Cold-regions engineering
14. 2. 1. General principles
14. 2. 2. General solutions
14. 3. Provision of municipal services and urban infrastructure
14. 4. Construction of buildings and houses
14. 5. Problems of water supply
14. 6. Roads, bridges, railways and airstrips
14. 7. Oil and gas development
14. 7. 1. Exploration activity
14. 7. 2. Waste-drilling-fluid disposal problems
14. 7. 3. Pipelines and permafrost
14. 8. Mining activities

Advanced reading
Discussion topics

15. CLIMATE CHANGE AND PERIGLACIAL ENVIRONMENTS

15. 1. Global change and cold regions
15. 2. Climate change and permafrost
15. 2. 1. Ground thermal regimes
15. 2. 2. Thickness of the active layer
15. 2. 3. Extent of permafrost
15. 2. 4. Changes in cryogenic processes
15. 3. Future responses
15. 3. 1. Seasonal snow cover
15. 3. 2. Sea ice and sea level
15. 3. 3. Gas hydrates and methane
15. 3. 4. Seasonally-frozen ground
15. 3. 5. Boreal forest, tundra and polar desert ecosystems
15. 4. The urban infrastructure
15. 5. Conclusions

Advanced reading
Discussion topics
References
Index

Karst Hydrogeology and Geomorphology by Derek C. Ford, and Paul Williams Softcover - 576 pages Shipped in CLICK HERE Cat.# JW-GEO2 $203.60 BUY Published:  2007   ISBN:  9780470849965

Originally published in 1989, Karst Geomorphology and Hydrology became the leading textbook on karst studies. This new textbook has been substantially revised and updated.

The first half of the book is a systematic presentation of the dissolution kinetics, chemical equilibria and physical flow laws relating to karst environments. It includes details of the many environmental factors that complicate their chemical evolution, with a critique of measurement of karst erosion rates. The second half of the book looks at the classification system for cave systems and the influence of climate and climatic change on karst development. The book ends with chapters on karst water resource management and a look at the important issues of environmental management, including environmental impact assessment, environmental rehabilitation, tourism impacts and conservation values. Practical application of karst studies are explained throughout the text.

Table of Contents:

CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION TO KARST

1.1 Definitions
1.2 The Relationship Between Karst And General Geomorphology And Hydrogeology
1.3 The Global Distribution Of Karst
1.4 The Growth Of Ideas
1.5 Aims Of The Book
1.6 Karst Terminology

CHAPTER 2. THE KARST ROCKS

2.1 Carbonate Rocks And Minerals
2.2 Limestone Compositions And Depositional Facies
2.3 Limestone Diagenesis And The Formation Of Dolomite
2.4 The Evaporite Rocks
2.5. Quartzites And Siliceous Sandstones
2.6 Effects Of Lithologic Properties Upon Karst Development
2.7 Interbedded Clastic Rocks
2.8 Bedding Planes, Joints, Faults And Fracture Traces
2.9 Fold Topography
2.10 Paleokarst Unconformities

CHAPTER 3. DISSOLUTION: CHEMICAL AND KINETIC BEHAVIOUR OF THE KARST ROCKS

3.1 Introduction
3.2 Aqueous Solutions And Chemical Equilibria
3.3 The Dissolution Of Anhydrite, Gypsum And Salt
3.4 The Dissolution Of Silica
3.5 Bicarbonate Equilibria And The Dissolution Of Carbonate Rocks In Normal Meteoric Waters
3.6 The S-O-H System And The Dissolution Of Carbonate Rocks
3.7 Chemical Complications In Carbonate Dissolution
3.8 Biokarst Processes
3.9 Measurements In The Field And Lab; Computer Programs
3.10 Dissolution And Precipitation Kinetics Of Karst Rocks

CHAPTER 4. DISTRIBUTION AND RATE OF KARST DENUDATION

4.1 Global Variations In The Solutional Denudation Of Carbonate Terrains
4.2 Measurement And Calculation Of Solutional Denudation Rates
4.3 Solution Rates In Gypsum, Salt And Other Non-Carbonate Rocks
4.4 Interpretation Of Measurements

CHAPTER 5. KARST HYDROLOGY

5.1 Basic Hydrological Concepts, Terms And Definitions
5.2 Controls On The Development Of Karst Hydrologic Systems
5.3 Energy Supply And Flow Network Development
5.4 Development Of The Water Table And Phreatic Zones
5.5 Development Of The Vadose Zone
5.6 Classification And Characteristics Of Karst Aquifers
5.7 Applicability Of Darcy's Law To Karst
5.8 The Fresh Water/Salt Water Interface

CHAPTER 6. ANALYSIS OF KARST DRAINAGE SYSTEMS

6.1 The 'Grey Box' Nature Of Karst
6.2 Surface Exploration And Survey Techniques
6.3 Investigating Recharge And Percolation In The Vadose Zone
6.4 Borehole Analysis
6.5 Spring Hydrograph Analysis
6.6 Polje Hydrograph Analysis
6.7 Spring Chemograph Interpretation
6.8 Storage Volumes And Flow Routing Under Different States Of The Hydrograph
6.9 Interpreting The Organisation Of A Karst Aquifer
6.10 Water Tracing Techniques
6.11 Computer Modelling Of Karst Aquifers

CHAPTER 7. SPELEOGENESIS: THE DEVELOPMENT OF CAVE SYSTEMS

7.1 Classifying Cave Systems
7.2 Building The Plan Patterns Of Unconfined Caves
7.3 Unconfined Cave Development In Length And Depth
7.4 System Modifications Occurring Within A Single Phase
7.5 Multi-Phase Cave Systems
7.6 Meteoric Water Caves Developed Where There Is Confined Circulation Or Basal Injection Of Water
7.7 Hypogene Caves: (A) Hydrothermal Caves Associated Chiefly With Co2
7.8 Hypogene Caves: (B) Caves Formed By Waters Containing H2s
7.9 Sea Coast Eogenetic Caves
7.10 Passage Cross-Sections And Smaller Features Of Erosional Morphology
7.11 Condensation, Condensation Corrosion, And Weathering In Caves
7.12 Breakdown In Caves

CHAPTER 8. CAVE INTERIOR DEPOSITS

8.1 Introduction
8.2 Clastic Sediments
8.3 Calcite, Aragonite And Other Carbonate Precipitates
8.4 Other Cave Minerals
8.5 Ice In Caves
8.6 Dating Of Calcite Speleothems And Other Cave Deposits
8.7 Paleo-Environmental Analysis Of Calcite Speleothems
8.8 Mass Flux Through A Cave System: The Example Of Friar’s Hole, W.Va

CHAPTER 9. KARST LANDFORM DEVELOPMENT IN HUMID REGIONS

9.1 Coupled Hydrological And Geochemical Systems
9.2 Small Scale Solution Sculpture - Microkarren And Karren
9.3 Dolines - The 'Diagnostic' Karst Landform?
9.4 The Origin And Development Of Solution Dolines
9.5 The Origin Of Collapse And Subsidence Depressions
9.6 Polygonal Karst
9.7 Morphometric Analysis Of Solution Dolines
9.8 Landforms Associated With Allogenic Inputs
9.9 Karst Poljes
9.10 Corrosional Plains And Shifts In Baselevel
9.11 Residual Hills On Karst Plains
9.12 Depositional And Constructional Karst Features
9.13 Special Features Of Evaporite Terrains
9.14 Karstic Features Of Quartzose And Other Rocks
9.15 Sequences Of Carbonate Karst Evolution In Humid Terrains

CHAPTER 10.THE INFLUENCE OF CLIMATE, CLIMATIC CHANGE AND OTHER ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS ON KARST DEVELOPMENT

10.1 The Precepts Of Climatic Geomorphology
10.2 The Hot Arid Extreme
10.3 The Cold Extreme: 1 Karst Development In Glaciated Terrains
10.4 The Cold Extreme: 2 Karst Development In Permafrozen Terrains
10.5 Sea Level Changes, Tectonic Movement And Implications For Coastal Karst Development
10.6 Polycyclic, Polygenetic And Exhumed Karsts

CHAPTER 11. KARST WATER RESOURCES MANAGEMENT

11.1 Water Resources And Sustainable Yields
11.2 Determination Of Available Water Resources
11.3 Karst Hydrogeological Mapping
11.4 Human Impacts On Karst Water
11.5 Groundwater Vulnerability, Protection, And Risk Mapping
11.6 Dam Building, Leakages, Failures And Impacts

CHAPTER 12. HUMAN IMPACTS AND ENVIRONMENTAL REHABILITATION

12.1 The Inherent Vulnerability Of Karst Systems
12.2 Deforestation, Agricultural Impacts And Rocky Desertification
12.3 Sinkholes Induced By De-Watering, Surcharging, Solution Mining And Other Practices On Karst
12.4 Problems Of Construction On And In The Karst Rocks - Expect The Unexpected!
12.5 Industrial Exploitation Of Karst Rocks And Minerals
12.6 Restoration Of Karstlands And Rehabilitation Of Limestone Quarries
12.7 Sustainable Management Of Karst
12.8 Scientific, Cultural And Recreational Values Of Karstlands

Effective Groundwater Model Calibration by Mary C. Hill, and Claire R. Tiedeman Hardcover - 455 pages Shipped in CLICK HERE Cat.# JW-GEO3 $105.40 BUY Published:  2007   ISBN:  9780471776369

With Analysis of Data, Sensitivities, Predictions, and Uncertainty

Methods and guidelines for developing and using mathematical models.

Turn to Effective Groundwater Model Calibration for a set of methods and guidelines that can help produce more accurate and transparent mathematical models. The models can represent groundwater flow and transport and other natural and engineered systems. Use this book and its extensive exercises to learn methods to fully exploit the data on hand, maximize the model's potential, and troubleshoot any problems that arise. Use the methods to perform:

• Sensitivity analysis to evaluate the information content of data
• Data assessment to identify (a) existing measurements that dominate model development and predictions and (b) potential measurements likely to improve the reliability of predictions
• Calibration to develop models that are consistent with the data in an optimal manner
• Uncertainty evaluation to quantify and communicate errors in simulated results that are often used to make important societal decisions

Most of the methods are based on linear and nonlinear regression theory. Fourteen guidelines show the reader how to use the methods advantageously in practical situations. Exercises focus on a groundwater flow system and management problem, enabling readers to apply all the methods presented in the text. The exercises can be completed using the material provided in the book, or as hands-on computer exercises using instructions and files available on the text's accompanying Web site.

Throughout the book, the authors stress the need for valid statistical concepts and easily understood presentation methods required to achieve well-tested, transparent models. Most of the examples and all of the exercises focus on simulating groundwater systems; other examples come from surface-water hydrology and geophysics.

The methods and guidelines in the text are broadly applicable and can be used by students, researchers, and engineers to simulate many kinds systems.

Table of Contents:

Preface

1. Introduction
1.1 Book and Associated Contributions: Methods, Guidelines, Exercises, Answers, Software, and PowerPoint Files
1.2 Model Calibration with Inverse Modeling
1.2.1 Parameterization
1.2.2 Objective Function
1.2.3 Utility of Inverse Modeling and Associated Methods
1.2.4 Using the Model to Quantitatively Connect Parameters, Observations, and Predictions
1.3 Relation of this Book to Other Ideas and Previous Works
1.3.1 Predictive Versus Calibrated Models
1.3.2 Previous Work
1.4 A Few Definitions
1.4.1 Linear and Nonlinear
1.4.2 Precision, Accuracy, Reliability, and Uncertainty
1.5 Advantageous Expertise and Suggested Readings
1.6 Overview of Chapters 2 Through 15

2. Computer Software and Groundwater Management Problem Used in the Exercises
2.1 Computer Programs MODFLOW-2000, UCODE_2005, and PEST
2.2 Groundwater Management Problem Used for the Exercises
2.2.1 Purpose and Strategy
2.2.2 Flow System Characteristics
2.3 Exercises

Exercise 2.1: Simulate Steady-State Heads and Perform Preparatory Steps

3. Comparing Observed and Simulated Values Using Objective Functions
3.1 Weighted Least-Squares Objective Function
3.1.1 With a Diagonal Weight Matrix
3.1.2 With a Full Weight Matrix
3.2 Alternative Objective Functions
3.2.1 Maximum-Likelihood Objective Function
3.2.2 L1 Norm Objective Function
3.2.3 Multiobjective Function
3.3 Requirements for Accurate Simulated Results
3.3.1 Accurate Model
3.3.2 Unbiased Observations and Prior Information
3.3.3 Weighting Reflects Errors
3.4 Additional Issues
3.4.1 Prior Information
3.4.2 Weighting
3.4.3 Residuals and Weighted Residuals
3.5 Least-Squares Objective-Function Surfaces
3.6 Exercises

Exercise 3.1: Steady-State Parameter Definition
Exercise 3.2: Observations for the Steady-State Problem
Exercise 3.3: Evaluate Model Fit Using Starting Parameter Values

4. Determining the Information that Observations Provide on Parameter Values using Fit-Independent Statistics
4.1 Using Observations
4.1.1 Model Construction and Parameter Definition
4.1.2 Parameter Values
4.2 When to Determine the Information that Observations Provide About Parameter Values
4.3 Fit-Independent Statistics for Sensitivity Analysis
4.3.1 Sensitivities
4.3.2 Scaling
4.3.3 Dimensionless Scaled Sensitivities (dss)
4.3.4 Composite Scaled Sensitivities (css)
4.3.5 Parameter Correlation Coefficients (pcc)
4.3.6 Leverage Statistics
4.3.7 One-Percent Scaled Sensitivities
4.4 Advantages and Limitations of Fit-Independent Statistics for Sensitivity Analysis
4.4.1 Scaled Sensitivities
4.4.2 Parameter Correlation Coefficients
4.4.3 Leverage Statistics
4.5 Exercises

Exercise 4.1: Sensitivity Analysis for the Steady-State Model with Starting Parameter Values

5. Estimating Parameter Values
5.1 The Modified Gauss–Newton Gradient Method
5.1.1 Normal Equations
5.1.2 An Example
5.1.3 Convergence Criteria
5.2 Alternative Optimization Methods
5.3 Multiobjective Optimization
5.4 Log-Transformed Parameters
5.5 Use of Limits on Estimated Parameter Values
5.6 Exercises

Exercise 5.1: Modified Gauss–Newton Method and Application to a Two-Parameter Problem
Exercise 5.2: Estimate the Parameters of the Steady-State Model

6. Evaluating Model Fit
6.1 Magnitude of Residuals and Weighted Residuals
6.2 Identify Systematic Misfit
6.3 Measures of Overall Model Fit
6.3.1 Objective-Function Value
6.3.2 Calculated Error Variance and Standard Error
6.3.3 AIC, AICc, and BIC Statistics
6.4 Analyzing Model Fit Graphically and Related Statistics
6.4.1 Using Graphical Analysis of Weighted Residuals to Detect Model Error
6.4.2 Weighted Residuals Versus Weighted or Unweighted Simulated Values and Minimum, Maximum, and Average Weighted Residuals
6.4.3 Weighted or Unweighted Observations Versus Simulated Values and Correlation Coefficient R
6.4.4 Graphs and Maps Using Independent Variables and the Runs Statistic
6.4.5 Normal Probability Graphs and Correlation Coefficient RN2
6.4.6 Acceptable Deviations from Random, Normally Distributed Weighted Residuals
6.5 Exercises

Exercise 6.1: Statistical Measures of Overall Fit
Exercise 6.2: Evaluate Graph Model fit and Related Statistics

7. Evaluating Estimated Parameter Values and Parameter Uncertainty
7.1 Reevaluating Composite Scaled Sensitivities
7.2 Using Statistics from the Parameter Variance–Covariance Matrix
7.2.1 Five Versions of the Variance–Covariance Matrix
7.2.2 Parameter Variances, Covariances, Standard Deviations, Coefficients of Variation, and Correlation Coefficients
7.2.3 Relation Between Sample and Regression Statistics
7.2.4 Statistics for Log-Transformed Parameters
7.2.5 When to Use the Five Versions of the Parameter Variance–Covariance Matrix
7.2.6 Some Alternate Methods: Eigenvectors, Eigenvalues, and Singular Value Decomposition
7.3 Identifying Observations Important to Estimated Parameter Values
7.3.1 Leverage Statistics
7.3.2 Influence Statistics
7.4 Uniqueness and Optimality of the Estimated Parameter Values
7.5 Quantifying Parameter Value Uncertainty
7.5.1 Inferential Statistics
7.5.2 Monte Carlo Methods
7.6 Checking Parameter Estimates Against Reasonable Values
7.7 Testing Linearity
7.8 Exercises

Exercise 7.1: Parameter Statistics
Exercise 7.2: Consider All the Different Correlation Coefficients Presented
Exercise 7.3: Test for Linearity

8. Evaluating Model Predictions, Data Needs, and Prediction Uncertainty
8.1 Simulating Predictions and Prediction Sensitivities and Standard Deviations
8.2 Using Predictions to Guide Collection of Data that Directly Characterize System Properties
8.2.1 Prediction Scaled Sensitivities (pss)
8.2.2 Prediction Scaled Sensitivities Used in Conjunction with Composite Scaled Sensitivities
8.2.3 Parameter Correlation Coefficients without and with Predictions
8.2.4 Composite and Prediction Scaled Sensitivities Used with Parameter Correlation Coefficients
8.2.5 Parameter–Prediction (ppr) Statistic
8.3 Using Predictions to Guide Collection of Observation Data
8.3.1 Use of Prediction, Composite, and Dimensionless Scaled Sensitivities and Parameter Correlation Coefficients
8.3.2 Observation–Prediction (opr) Statistic
8.3.3 Insights About the opr Statistic from Other Fit-Independent Statistics
8.3.4 Implications for Monitoring Network Design
8.4 Quantifying Prediction Uncertainty Using Inferential Statistics
8.4.1 Definitions
8.4.2 Linear Confidence and Prediction Intervals on Predictions
8.4.3 Nonlinear Confidence and Prediction Intervals
8.4.4 Using the Theis Example to Understand Linear and Nonlinear Confidence Intervals
8.4.5 Differences and Their Standard Deviations, Confidence Intervals, and Prediction Intervals
8.4.6 Using Confidence Intervals to Serve the Purposes of Traditional Sensitivity Analysis
8.5 Quantifying Prediction Uncertainty Using Monte Carlo Analysis
8.5.1 Elements of a Monte Carlo Analysis
8.5.2 Relation Between Monte Carlo Analysis and Linear and Nonlinear Confidence Intervals
8.5.3 Using the Theis Example to Understand Monte Carlo Methods
8.6 Quantifying Prediction Uncertainty Using Alternative Models
8.7 Testing Model Nonlinearity with Respect to the Predictions
8.8 Exercises

Exercise 8.1: Predict Advective Transport and Perform Sensitivity Analysis
Exercise 8.2: Prediction Uncertainty Measured Using Inferential Statistics

9. Calibrating Transient and Transport Models and Recalibrating Existing Models
9.1 Strategies for Calibrating Transient Models
9.1.1 Initial Conditions
9.1.2 Transient Observations
9.1.3 Additional Model Inputs
9.2 Strategies for Calibrating Transport Models
9.2.1 Selecting Processes to Include
9.2.2 Defining Source Geometry and Concentrations
9.2.3 Scale Issues
9.2.4 Numerical Issues: Model Accuracy and Execution Time
9.2.5 Transport Observations
9.2.6 Additional Model Inputs
9.2.7 Examples of Obtaining a Tractable, Useful Model
9.3 Strategies for Recalibrating Existing Models
9.4 Exercises (optional).

Exercises 9.1 and 9.2: Simulate Transient Hydraulic Heads and Perform Preparatory Steps
Exercise 9.3: Transient Parameter Definition
Exercise 9.4: Observations for the Transient Problem
Exercise 9.5: Evaluate Transient Model Fit Using Starting Parameter Values
Exercise 9.6: Sensitivity Analysis for the Initial Model
Exercise 9.7: Estimate Parameters for the Transient System by Nonlinear Regression
Exercise 9.8: Evaluate Measures of Model Fit
Exercise 9.9: Perform Graphical Analyses of Model Fit and Evaluate Related Statistics
Exercise 9.10: Evaluate Estimated Parameters
Exercise 9.11: Test for Linearity
Exercise 9.12: Predictions

10. Guidelines for Effective Modeling
10.1 Purpose of the Guidelines
10.2 Relation to Previous Work
10.3 Suggestions for Effective Implementation

11. Guidelines 1 Through 8—Model Development
Guideline 1: Apply the Principle of Parsimony
G1.1 Problem
G1.2 Constructive Approaches
Guideline 2: Use a Broad Range of System Information to Constrain the Problem
G2.1 Data Assimilation
G2.2 Using System Information
G2.3 Data Management
G2.4 Application: Characterizing a Fractured Dolomite Aquifer
Guideline 3: Maintain a Well-Posed, Comprehensive Regression Problem
G3.1 Examples
G3.2 Effects of Nonlinearity on the css and pcc
Guideline 4: Include Many Kinds of Data as Observations in the Regression
G4.1 Interpolated “Observations”
G4.2 Clustered Observations
G4.3 Observations that Are Inconsistent with Model Construction
G4.4 Applications: Using Different Types of Observations to Calibrate Groundwater Flow and Transport Models
Guideline 5: Use Prior Information Carefully
G5.1 Use of Prior Information Compared with Observations
G5.2 Highly Parameterized Models
G5.3 Applications: Geophysical Data
Guideline 6: Assign Weights that Reflect Errors
G6.1 Determine Weights
G6.2 Issues of Weighting in Nonlinear Regression
Guideline 7: Encourage Convergence by Making the Model More Accurate and Evaluating the Observations
Guideline 8: Consider Alternative Models
G8.1 Develop Alternative Models
G8.2 Discriminate Between Models
G8.3 Simulate Predictions with Alternative Models
G8.4 Application

12. Guidelines 9 and 10—Model Testing
Guideline 9: Evaluate Model Fit
G9.1 Determine Model Fit
G9.2 Examine Fit for Existing Observations Important to the Purpose of the Model
G9.3 Diagnose the Cause of Poor Model Fit
Guideline 10: Evaluate Optimized Parameter Values
G10.1 Quantify Parameter-Value Uncertainty
G10.2 Use Parameter Estimates to Detect Model Error
G10.3 Diagnose the Cause of Unreasonable Optimal Parameter Estimates
G10.4 Identify Observations Important to the Parameter Estimates
G10.5 Reduce or Increase the Number of Parameters

13. Guidelines 11 and 12—Potential New Data
Guideline 11: Identify New Data to Improve Simulated Processes, Features, and Properties
Guideline 12: Identify New Data to Improve Predictions
G12.1 Potential New Data to Improve Features and Properties Governing System Dynamics
G12.2 Potential New Data to Support Observations

14. Guidelines 13 and 14—Prediction Uncertainty
Guideline 13: Evaluate Prediction Uncertainty and Accuracy Using Deterministic Methods
G13.1 Use Regression to Determine Whether Predicted Values Are Contradicted by the Calibrated Model
G13.2 Use Omitted Data and Postaudits
Guideline 14: Quantify Prediction Uncertainty Using Statistical Methods
G14.1 Inferential Statistics
G14.2 Monte Carlo Methods

15. Using and Testing the Methods and Guidelines
15.1 Execution Time Issues
15.2 Field Applications and Synthetic Test Cases
15.2.1 The Death Valley Regional Flow System, California and Nevada, USA
15.2.2 Grindsted Landfill, Denmark

Appendix A: Objective Function Issues
A.1 Derivation of the Maximum-Likelihood Objective Function
A.2 Relation of the Maximum-Likelihood and Least-Squares Objective Functions
A.3 Assumptions Required for Diagonal Weighting to be Correct
A.4 References

Appendix B: Calculation Details of the Modified Gauss–Newton Method
B.1 Vectors and Matrices for Nonlinear Regression
B.2 Quasi-Newton Updating of the Normal Equations
B.3 Calculating the Damping Parameter
B.4 Solving the Normal Equations
B.5 References

Appendix C: Two Important Properties of Linear Regression and the Effects of Nonlinearity.
C.1 Identities Needed for the Proofs
C.1.1 True Linear Model
C.1.2 True Nonlinear Model
C.1.3 Linearized True Nonlinear Model
C.1.4 Approximate Linear Model
C.1.5 Approximate Nonlinear Model
C.1.6 Linearized Approximate Nonlinear Model
C.1.7 The Importance of X and X
C.1.8 Considering Many Observations
C.1.9 Normal Equations
C.1.10 Random Variables
C.1.11 Expected Value
C.1.12 Variance–Covariance Matrix of a Vector
C.2 Proof of Property 1: Parameters Estimated by Linear Regression are Unbiased
C.3 Proof of Property 2: The Weight Matrix Needs to be Defined in a Particular Way for Eq. (7.1) to Apply and for the Parameter Estimates to have the Smallest Variance
C.4 Reference

Appendix D: Selected Statistical Tables
D.1 References
References
Index

Groundwater Age by Gholam A. Kazemi, Jay H. Lehr, and Pierre Perrochet Hardcover - 346 pages Shipped in CLICK HERE Cat.# JW-GEO4 $114.50 BUY Published:  2006   ISBN:  9780471718192

Groundwater Age is the first book of its kind that incorporates and synthesizes the state-of-the-art knowledge about the business of groundwater dating - including historical development, principles, applications, various methods, and likely future progress in the concept. It is a well-organized, advanced, clearly written resource for all the professionals, scientists, graduate students, consultants, and water sector managers who deal with groundwater and who seek a comprehensive treatment of the subject of groundwater age.

Table of Contents:

Preface
Acknowledgments

Chapter 1. Introduction

1.1 Age and lifetime
1.2 Age determination in geology (Geochronology) and in other disciplines
1.2.1 Absolute age and relative age
1.2.2 Determination of absolute age of rocks
1.2.3 Geological time table
1.3 Groundwater age and groundwater residence time
1.3.1 Young, old and very old groundwaters
1.3.2 Dead water and active water
1.3.3 Age gradient
1.3.4 Age mass
1.3.5 Mixing, dispersion and transport of groundwater age, mean age and distribution of ages
1.3.6 Average residence time of water in various compartments of the hydrologic cycle
1.3.7 Hydrogeochronolgy, interdisciplinary groundwater age science and hydrologic time concept
1.3.8 Event markers
1.4 Life expectancy
1.5 Isochrone and life expectancy maps
1.6 Some groundwater age related terms
1.6.1 Isotopic age, radiometric age and decay age
1.6.2 Hydraulic age
1.6.3 Piston-flow age, streamtube age and advective age
1.6.4 Model age and apparent age
1.6.5 Storage time, mean transit time, turn over time, flushing time and travel time
1.6.6 Reservoir theory and its relation with groundwater residence time

Chapter 2. History of groundwater age dating research

2.1 Pioneer of Groundwater Age discipline-sequence of the earliest publications
2.2 Laboratories worldwide for dating groundwater samples
2.3 Major contributors to Groundwater Age dating discipline
2.4 Names familiar in the Groundwater Dating business
2.5 Important publications
2.5.1 Book chapters
2.5.2 PhD and MSc theses
2.5.3 Journals
2.5.4 Reports (mainly by the USGS)
2.6 Aquifers subjected to extensive dating studies

Chapter 3. The applications of groundwater age data

3.1 Renewability of the groundwater reservoirs
3.2 An effective communication tool for scientists and managers- and curiosity to laymen as well
3.3 Age monitoring for the prevention of over exploitation and contamination of aquifers
3.4 Estimation of the recharge rate
3.5 Calculation of the groundwater flow velocity
3.6 Identification of the groundwater flow paths
3.7 Assessing the rates of groundwater and contaminants transport through aquitards
3.8 Constraining the parameters of groundwater flow and transports models (estimation of large scale flow and transport properties)
3.9 Identification of the mixing between different end members
3.10 Study of the pre-Holocene (late Pleistocene) climate
3.11 Evaluation of the groundwater pollution
3.12 Calculation of the travel time of the groundwater plume to the points of interest
3.13 Mapping vulnerability of the shallow aquifers
3.14 Performance assessments for radioactive waste disposal facilities
3.15 Site specific applications
3.15.1 Identification of the seawater level fluctuations
3.15.2 Calculating the timescale of seawater intrusion
3.15.3 Disposal of wastes into the deep old saline groundwater systems
3.15.4 Management of the dryland salinity in Australia
3.15.5 Hydrograph separation

Chapter 4. Age-dating young groundwaters

4.1 Important points
4.2 Tritium
4.2.1 Production of tritium
4.2.2 Sampling, analyzing and reporting the results
4.2.3 Age dating groundwater by tritium
4.2.4 Advantages and disadvantages
4.2.5 Case studies
4.3 3H/3He
4.3.1 Sources of 3He
4.3.2 Sampling, analysis and reporting the results
4.3.3 Dating groundwater by 3H/3He
4.3.4 Advantages and disadvantages
4.3.5 Case studies
4.4 Helium-4
4.5 Krypton-85
4.5.1 Production of 85Kr
4.5.2 Sampling and analyzing groundwater for 85Kr
4.5.3 Age dating groundwater with 85Kr
4.5.4 Advantages and disadvantages
4.5.5 Case studies
4.6 CFCs
4.6.1 Sampling and analyzing groundwater for CFCs
4.6.2 Dating groundwater by CFCs
4.6.3 Limitations and possible sources of error in CFCs dating technique
4.6.4 Advantages and disadvantages
4.6.5 Case studies
4.7 SF6
4.7.1 Sampling and analyzing groundwater for SF6
4.7.2 Age dating groundwater with SF6
4.7.3 Advantages and disadvantages
4.7.4 Case studies
4.8 36Cl/Cl
4.8.1 Dating groundwater by 36Cl/Cl ratio and case studies
4.9 Indirect methods
4.9.1 Stable isotopes of water
4.9.2 Case study

Chapter 5. Age-dating old groundwaters

5.1 Silicon-32
5.1.1 Production of 32Si
5.1.2 Sampling and analyzing groundwater for 32Si
5.1.3 Dating groundwater with 32Si
5.1.4 Advantages and disadvantages
5.1.5 Case studies
5.2 Argon-39
5.2.1 Production and sources of 39Ar
5.2.2 Sampling and analyzing groundwaters for 39Ar
5.2.3 Age dating groundwater by 39Ar
5.2.4 Advantages and disadvantages
5.2.5 Case studies
5.3 Carbon-14
5.3.1 Production of 14C
5.3.2 Sampling, analysis and reporting the results
5.3.3 Groundwater dating by 14C
5.3.4 Advantages and disadvantages
5.3.5 Case study
5.4 Indirect methods
5.4.1 Deuterium and oxygen-18
5.4.2 Conservative and reactive ions

Chapter 6. Age-dating very old groundwaters

6.1 Krypton-81
6.1.1 Production of 81Kr
6.1.2 Sampling, analysis and reporting the results
6.1.3 Age-dating groundwater by 81Kr
6.1.4 Advantages and disadvantages
6.1.5 Case studies
6.2 Chloride-36
6.2.1 Production of 36Cl
6.2.2 Sampling, analysis and reporting the results
6.2.3 Groundwater dating by 36Cl
6.2.4 Advantages and disadvantages
6.2.5 Case studies
6.3 Helium-4
6.3.1 Production and sources of 4He
6.3.2 Sampling, analysis and reporting the results
6.3.3 Age-dating groundwater by 4He
6.3.4 Advantages and disadvantages
6.3.5 Case studies
6.4 Argon-40
6.4.1 Sampling, analysis and reporting the results
6.4.2 Age-dating groundwater by 40Ar and obstacles
6.4.3 Case studies
6.5 Iodine-129
6.5.1 Production of 129I
6.5.2 Sampling, analysis and reporting the results
6.5.3 Age-dating groundwater by 129I
6.5.4 Advantages and disadvantages
6.5.5 Case studies
6.6 Uranium disequilibrium series
6.6.1 Sampling, analysis and reporting the results
6.6.2 Dating groundwater by UDS
6.6.3 Case studies

Chapter 7. Modeling of groundwater age and residence time distributions

7.1 Overview and state-of-the-art
7.2 Basics in groundwater age transport
7.2.1 The reservoir theory
7.2.2 Determination of age and residence time distributions
7.3 Selected typical examples
7.3.1 Aquifer with uniform and localized recharge
7.3.2 Hydro-dispersive multilayer aquifer
7.3.3 The Seeland phreatic aquifer

Chapter 8. Issues and thoughts in groundwater dating

8.1 The need for more dating methods and the currently proposed potential method
8.2 Translating simulation of groundwater ages techniques into practice- More applications for age data
8.3 Worldwide practices of groundwater age-dating
8.4 Proposal for a groundwater age map - Worldwide groundwater age maps
8.5 Works which can and need to be done to enhance groundwater age science
8.5 Major problems facing groundwater dating discipline
8.7 Some thoughtful questions - Concluding remarks and Future of groundwater dating

References

Appendix 1: Decay Curves of Groundwater Dating Isotopes. That of Tritium Is Shown in Chapter 4
Appendix 2: Some Useful Information for Groundwater Dating Studies and Table of Conversion of Units
Appendix 3: Concentration of Noble Gases (Used in Groundwater Dating) and Some Important Constituents of the Atmosphere

Index

Subsurface Hydrology by George F. Pinder, and Michael A. Celia Hardcover - 468 pages Shipped in CLICK HERE Cat.# JW-GEO5 $105.40 BUY Published:  2006   ISBN:  9780471742432

With an emphasis on methodology, this reference provides a comprehensive examination of water movement as well as the movement of various pollutants in the earth's subsurface. The multidisciplinary approach integrates earth science, fluid mechanics, mathematics, statistics, and chemistry. Ideal for both professionals and students, this is a practical guide to the practices, procedures, and rules for dealing with groundwater.

Table of Contents:

Preface

1. Water and the Subsurface Environment

1.1 Groundwater Hydrology
1.2 Groundwater and the Hydrologic Cycle
1.3 Groundwater as a Resource
1.4 Groundwater and the Subsurface
1.5 The Near-surface Environment
1.5.1 Soil
1.6 Porosity
1.6.1 Primary Porosity
1.6.2 Secondary Porosity
1.7 SoilWater
1.8 Groundwater Contamination
1.8.1 Naturally Occurring Groundwater Contaminants
1.8.2 Anthropogenic Contaminants
1.8.3 Superfund
1.9 Quantitative Analysis of Groundwater Problems
1.9.1 Governing Equations
1.9.2 Field Data
1.9.3 Behavior of Groundwater Systems
1.10 Summary
1.11 Problems

2. Fluid Flow and Mass Transport

2.1 Fluid Pressure
2.2 Hydraulic Head
2.3 Fluid Potential
2.4 Concept of Saturation
2.5 The Darcy Experiment
2.5.1 Extended Forms of Darcys Law
2.5.2 Example of a Groundwater Flow Velocity Calculation in Two Dimensions
2.5.3 Additional Concepts of Fluid Potential
2.6 Fluid Flow and Mass and Energy Fluxes
2.6.1 Convection, Diffusion, and Dispersion
2.6.2 The Phenomena of Adsorption and Retardation
2.7 Summary
2.8 Problems

3. The Geologic Setting

3.1 Unconsolidated Deposits
3.1.1 Clastic Sedimentary Environment
3.1.2 Precipitate Sedimentary Environment
3.1.3 Glacial Environments
3.2 Consolidated Rocks
3.3 Metamorphic Rocks
3.4 Igneous Rocks
3.5 Geologic Time
3.5.1 The Hadean Era
3.5.2 The Archaean Era
3.5.3 Proterozoic Era
3.5.4 Paleozoic Era
3.5.5 Mesozoic Era
3.5.6 Cenozoic Era
3.6 Field Investigation
3.6.1 Near-surface Investigation
3.6.2 Deep Subsurface Investigation
3.7 The Geohydrological Record
3.7.1 The Cross Section
3.7.2 The Contour Map
3.8 The Measurement of State Variables
3.8.1 Water-level Measurements
3.8.2 Solute Concentration Measurements
3.9 Summary
3.10 Problems

4. Water Movement in Geological Formations

4.1 Conservation of Fluid Mass
4.2 Conservation of Fluid Mass in a Porous Medium
4.3 Groundwater Flow Equations
4.3.1 The Governing Equation
4.3.2 Parameter Estimates
4.3.3 Boundary Conditions
4.3.4 Initial Conditions
4.3.5 Sources and Sinks